Learning, Intelligence, Aptitude and Creativity

Learning: Meaning, Nature and Principles of Learning

Learning occupies a very important place in our life learning influences what we do, how we do learning therefore provides a key to the structure of our personality and behavior.
Kimble (1961) – Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.
Learning is
1. A process and not a product.
2. All the experiences throughout life and training help to produce change in behaviour.
3. Change may not always be positive.
4. Learning may discontinuance or abandonment of existing behavior.
5. Learning prepares an individual for any adjust and adapted necessary.
6. Learning is purposeful and goal oriented.
7. Learning is a comprehensive process and is too wide.
8. Learning is universal and continuous.
9. Learning involves new ways of doing things.
10. Species specific learning is not included in learning.
11. Learning due to maturation, fatigable, illness or drugs is not considered learning.

OUTCOME OF LEARNING
Brings desirable change in behavior
 Attaining of teaching learning objectives.
 Attaining of proper growth and Development.
 Attaining balanced development of personality.
 Attaining proper adjustment.
 Realizing goals of life.

Factor Affecting Learning
1. Factors Associated with learner
• Learner’s physical and mental health.
• Potential of learner.
• Aspiration and motivation of the learner.
• Goals of life of the learner.
• Readiness and will power of the learner.

2. Factors Associated with men and material Resources
• Quality of teachers (Degrees, Skills, Qualities)
• Socio-Economic climate in the institution.
• Availability of TLM & other resources.
• Availability of conducive environment & learning ituation like:
• Proper seating
• Peaceful environment
• Congenial learning environment at home.
• Proper provision for rest and recreation.
• Provision of opportunity for creativity & self expression.

3. Factors associated with the type of learning experiences.

• Nature of learning experience (Organized, Inspiring, Learning Experience)
• Methodology of learning like:
• Linking learning
• Correlating learning
• Revision & Practice
• Feedback & Reinforced
• Suitable learning methods.


Learning Theories and their educational Implications
There are many different learning theories which are proposed by different psychologies from different schools of psychology.
A. Classical Conditioning: -
A theory develops by Ivan Pavlov through the conditioning of a dog to salivate when it heard a bell. Pavlov demonstrated that artificial stimulus become so strong as to produce salivation even where it was not accompanied by the natural stimulus Watson also demonstrated such conditioning by including fear in his eleven month old subject Albert. In this process we learn to respond to all other stimuli. He also gave the phenomena of extinction. This is known as ‘operant conditioning’ – Here learning is dependent on its consequences. Behaviors which are reinforced are likely to be repeated and those which are not reinforced are unlikely to be repeated.
Thorndike’s Trial & Error Principle
Educational implications of Behaviorism
A. Behaviorism revolutionized methods and the entire programme related to education. It emphasized greater need to provide the best possible learning situation for better growth and development of the child.
B. It gave as the technique of shaping behavior and behavior modification programme.
C. Behaviorist advocated use of reinforcement and reward in place of punishment and unpleasant experiences to acquire desirable behavior.
D. Behaviorism highlighted the role of motivation and definition of the aims and purposes in learning and shaping behavior.
E. Behaviorism gave rise to new innovation like programmed learning and individualized self instructional programme – involving teaching machine and computer assisted learning.




2. Cognitivist’s / Gestalt’s Insightful Learning Theory :-

‘Gestalt’ is a German word nearest English translation is configuration or organized whole Gestalt psychologists consider the process of learning to be a gestalt – an organized whole. These psychologists tried to interpret learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise instead of trial and error or stimulus response mechanism. A learner, while learning always perceives the situation as a whole and after seeing and evaluation the different relationships take proper decision intelligently. Kohler describes his experiment with chimpanzee and he use the word ‘insight’ to describe the perception of the whole situation – by the learner.

Implications of Insightful Learning Theory
a. It made learning purposed and goal oriented so the teachers need to think about the objectives of teaching.
b. They emphasize the importance of viewing a particular lesson the situation as whole, has given the birth to the important maxims of teaching i.e. from whole to part, known to unknown.
c. Gestaltist emphasized the role of motivation.
d. They provided a scientific and progressive method of problem solving.
e. They emphasized on organizational climate, institutional planning and group dynamics etc.

Humanistic theory of learning by Carl Roger: (Experimental Learning)
Humanist psychologists give more value to the human beings by not considering him merely as a sophisticated machine or a victim of the conflict between the ego and the id. It considers him as a purposeful being, capable of adapting himself to his environment and choosing his own course of action in order to achieve the goals which he has selected for himself.
1. Humanist psychologists emphasize such distinctively human aspects of personality as the existence of free will and freedom of choice.
2. Man is always searching for unique goals and values to guide his behaviour and to give a personal meaning to his existence.
3. He (Carl Roger) calls his theory the experimental learning, it is quite vital to one’s progress and welfare.
4. Experiential learning (Repairing a car) is learner centered.
5. Experiential learning is characterized by personal involvement of the learner.
6. It is characterized by self – evaluation.
7. It leaves a pervasive effect on a learner whatever is learned through this method can be used when and where he needs.

Educational Implications of Experiential Learning
1) Arrange a favorable and positive climate for learning.
2) Helping the learners to have a clear cut objective of his learning.
3) Organize the learning resources and make them available to the learner.
4) It emphasizing intellectual and emotional component of learning.
5) It emphasizes to share feelings and thoughts with learners in a democratic way.
6) Here the learner is in the center, he does not have any threat.
7) The procedure is such that learner develops openness and willingness to learn.

4. Constructivist Theory of Learning by Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky has focused on social interaction which plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky says that a child learns first through observation and interaction latter.

What is meant by Constructivism?
The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves. Each learner individually and socially constructs meaning through his experiences in the society.
Principles of Learning / Implication of Constructivism:-
1. Learning is an active process in which learner uses sensory organs and perceives to construct meaning out of it. The learner interacts with the material and forms meaning which is based on his world of experience and his interaction with social world. So, learning by doing is emphasized – Interactive Learning. Experiments and self learning activities should be given to the students.
2. Constructing meaning is a social activity because actions or gestures and language have different meaning at different places e.g. “blue” is a colour but in America it represents ‘sadness’. So our learning is associated with our connection with other human beings – our family members, teachers, peers, neighbour – so more group discussions, peer teaching, pair learning should be given.
3. Learning or constructing meaning does not take place in isolation. Whatever idea we come across is first related to our previous knowledge, so we interact with our existing knowledge and we form a new meaning – so a reader constructs meaning which may be different than the author. He the reader is in the center and autonomous to make a new means for him.



Intelligence: Concept, Importance of measuring various types of tests


Jean Piage (1952) Intelligence is the ability to adapt to one’s surroundings.
Wagnon (1937) Intelligence is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing conditions.

Intelligence may be understood to be a mental energy available with an individual to cope with his environment in teams of adaptation and dealing with novel situation as effectively as possible.

There are many theories of intelligence proposed by various psychologists but Gardners theory of Multiple Intelligence changes the notion of general intelligence. He believes that there are seven independent types of Intelligences they are as under.

1. Verbal/linguistic Intelligence
2. Logical and Mathematical Intelligence
3. Spatial Intelligence
4. Musical Intelligence
5. Kinesthetic Intelligence or Bodily Intelligence
6. Intra-personal Intelligence
7. Inter-personal Intelligence

This gave us the idea that each individual has different intelligence level and different combination of Intelligences. This gave us the idea that individuals have differences in their abilities and this individual difference has to be address at the class level. Besides the intelligence level there is also a concept of Emotional Intelligence which also plays an important role in individual’s abilities to perform tasks.
Types of Intelligence Tests: These tests are useful to help the individuals who have language handicaps, who are not literate, who are deaf and dumb and mentally retarded or culturally deprived and those who have high ability. These theories gave us the concepts of mental age, chronological age, educable and trainable, mentally retarded and mentally gifted children.
There are many different types of intelligence tests which are available in the market. They are Individual tests, group tests, verbal tests and non- verbal tests.



Aptitude: Concept, Importance of measuring and Types of aptitude tests

Aptitude may be defined as a specific capacity or special ability, distinct from the general intellectual ability of an individual, indicative of probable success in particular field after receiving training. Aptitude is adjudged to be the product of both heredity and environments.
Aptitude is different from ability, achievement and interest.

Types of Aptitude tests:
Mechanical aptitude tests

Clerical aptitude test
Musical aptitude
Scholastic aptitude test
Engineering aptitude test
Medical aptitude test
Law aptitude test
Business aptitude tests
Management aptitude tests

Aptitude tests have a wide range of application. They are the backbone of all kinds of guidance services and selection of study programmes because they are helpful to find suitability of individuals for specific jobs and line of work.



Creativity: Concept, Importance of measuring creativity, Types of creativity tests

Development of creativity

Creativity is the characteristic of human mind may be defined as the capacity of an individual to create or produce an entirely new or novel idea or object or by the rearrangement or reshaping of what is already known. Creativity is both innate and acquired process.

Characteristics of Creativity:

• Creativity is universality
• Adventurousness
• Open-mindedness
• Craving for change
• Craving for novelty
• Divergent thinking

Investigation of creativity can be done through outcome (products), through personality characteristics, through verbal creative tests or through non verbal tests.

Tests of Creativity:

The Torrance test of Creative Thinking.
Minnesota test of Creative Thinking
Banquer Mehdi test of Creative Thinking

How to Nurture Creativity:

There is a great need for properly planned, deliberate and conscious efforts on the part of teachers, parents and members of society and Government for appropriate nurturing and stimulation of the creative urge and potential. Therefore the schools, teachers and parents should provide environment and facilities conducive to the nurturing to the creativity. So children should be given the opportunity in craft, arts, constructive and creative activities and they should also be given freedom to express their ideas differently. They should given tasks for independent thinking and decision making.